Table 1 Pathogen-induced modulation of blood coagulation

A—initiation of coagulation

All bacteria

PolyP

FXII → FXIIa

Contact phase activation (FXI)

[51]

S. aureus

Coagulase

FII → FIIa

Non-proteolytic activation

[52]

von Willebrand binding protein (vWbp)

vWF (endothelium)

S. aureus anchorage to endothelium

[53]

FII → FIIa

Non-proteolytic activation

[52]

vWbp-FIIa → FXIII

Clot stabilisation

[53]

Clumping factor A (ClfA) and fibronectin-binding protein A (FnbpA)

Fg

S. aureus—platelet bridging and clot formation

[54]

Staphopains A and B (ScpA, ScpB)

HK → BK

Vascular leakage

[55, 56]

Group G streptococci

Fibrinogen-binding protein (FOG) and protein G (PG)

FXII → FXIIa

Contact phase complex assembly and activation (FXI) at bacterial surface

[57]

B. anthracis

Zinc metalloprotease InhA1

FX → FXa/FII → FIIa

Fibrin deposition

[57, 58]

ADAMTS13 inhibition

Platelet adhesion/activation by UL-vWF

[58]

B—degradation of fibrin clot

B. burgdorferi

Outer surface proteins (OspA and OspC) and Erp proteins (ErpA, ErpC and ErpP)

Plasmin(ogen)

Plasminogen activation by tPA/uPA

[62]

H. influenzae

Surface protein E (PE)

Plasmin(ogen)

Plasminogen activation by tPA/uPA

[63]

Streptococci spp.

α-Enolase

Plasmin(ogen)

Plasminogen activation by tPA/uPA

[64,65,66,67]

B. anthracis

α-Enolase and elongation factor tu

Plasmin(ogen)

Plasminogen activation by tPA/uPA

[66]

S. pyogenes

Plasminogen-binding M-like protein (PAM) and streptokinase (SK)

Plasminogen

Direct non-enzymatic activation

[51]

Metalloprotease activation and tissue invasion by PAM-bound SK·PM

[68, 69]

S. agalactiae

Skizzle (SkzL)

tPA/uPA

Enhanced plasminogen activation

[70]

Y. pestis

Omptin Pla

Plasminogen

Direct activation in presence of LPS

[71]

PAI-1/TAFI/α₂-AP

Inactivation of serpins

[72,73,74]

S. enterica

Omptin PgtE

PAI-1/α₂-AP

Inactivation of serpins

[76]

C—inactivation of fibrinolysis

Group A streptococci

Collagen-like proteins (SclA and SclB)

TAFI and FIIa

TAFI → TAFIa

[77, 78]

D—Inhibition of coagulation

Group A streptococci

Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC)

HK

Inhibition of HK binding and contact phase activation

[79, 80]

S. aureus

Staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 10 (SSLP-10)

FII

Inhibition of platelet binding and activation

[81]