Stevens D. Reappearance of scarlet fever toxin A among streptococci in the Rocky Mountain West: severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a toxic shock-like syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(1):1–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Severe group A streptococcal infections. In: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editors. Streptococcus pyogenes: basic biology to clinical manifestations. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2016. p. 661–5.
Google Scholar
Al Akhrass F, Abdallah L, Berger S, Hanna R, Reynolds N, Thompson S, et al. Streptococcus agalactiae toxic shock-like syndrome: two case reports and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 2013;92(1):10–4.
Article
Google Scholar
Reich HL, Crawford GH, Pelle MT, James WD. Group B streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(2):163–6.
Article
Google Scholar
Douglass W. The practical history of a new epidemical eruptive miliary fever, with an angina ulcusculosa, which prevailed in New-England in the years 1735 and 1736. N Engl J Med Surg. 1825;14(1):1–13.
Google Scholar
Dillon HC. Impetigo contagiosa: suppurative and non-suppurative complications. I. Clinical, bacteriologic, and epidemiologic characteristics of impetigo. Am J Dis Child. 1968;115(5):530–41.
Article
Google Scholar
Wannamaker LW, Rammelkamp CH, Denny FW, Brink WR, Houser HB, Hahn EO, et al. Prophylaxis of acute rheumatic fever by treatment of the preceding streptococcal infection with various amounts of depot penicillin. Am J Med. 1951;10(6):673–95.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Cone LA, Woodard DR, Schlievert PM, Tomory GS. Clinical and bacteriologic observations of a toxic shock-like syndrome due to Streptococcus pyogenes. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(3):146–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Weaver GH. The vitality of bacteria from the throats of scarlet fever patients, with special study of streptococci. J Med Res. 1903;9(3):246–56.
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Ikebe T, Chiba K, Shima T, Masuda C, Okuno R, Ohya H, et al. Evaluation of streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome caused by group B streptococcus in adults in Japan between 2009 and 2013. J Infect Chemother. 2015;21(3):207–11.
Article
Google Scholar
Sims KD, Barton TD. Group B streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in an asplenic patient: case report and literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006;25(3):208–10.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Proft T, Fraser JD. Streptococcal superantigens: biological properties and potential role in disease. In: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editors. Streptococcus pyogenes: basic biology to clinical manifestations.
Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome (STSS) (Streptococcus pyogenes) 2010 Case Definition. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nndss/conditions/streptococcal-toxic-shock-syndrome/case-definition/2010/. Accessed 4 Apr 2018.
Thigpen MC, Richards CL, Lynfield R, Barrett NL, Harrison LH, Arnold KE, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infection in older adults in long-term care facilities and the community, United States, 1998–2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(12):1852–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Thigpen MC, Thomas DM, Gloss D, Park SY, Khan AJ, Fogelman VL, et al. Nursing home outbreak of invasive group a streptococcal infections caused by 2 distinct strains. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28(1):68–74.
Article
Google Scholar
DiPersio JR, File TM, Stevens DL, Gardner WG, Petropoulos G, Dinsa K. Spread of serious disease—producing M3 clones of group A streptococcus among family members and health care workers. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(3):490–5.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Lamagni TL, Efstratiou A, Vuopio-Varkila J, Jasir A, Schalén C. Strep-EURO. The epidemiology of severe Streptococcus pyogenes associated disease in Europe. Euro Surveill. 2005;10(9):179–84.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
O’Loughlin RE, Roberson A, Cieslak PR, Lynfield R, Gershman K, Craig A, et al. The epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcal infection and potential vaccine implications: United States, 2000–2004. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(7):853–62.
Article
Google Scholar
Davies HD, McGeer A, Schwartz B, Green K, Cann D, Simor AE, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(8):547–54.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Factor SH, Levine OS, Schwartz B, Harrison LH, Farley MM, McGeer A, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal disease: risk factors for adults. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(8):970–7.
Article
Google Scholar
Defining the group. A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Rationale and consensus definition. The Working Group on Severe Streptococcal Infections. JAMA. 1993;269(3):390–1.
Article
Google Scholar
Bisno AL, Stevens DL. Streptococcal infections of skin and soft tissues. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(4):240–5.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Drage LA. Life-threatening rashes: dermatologic signs of four infectious diseases. Mayo Clin Proc. 1999;74(1):68–72.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome (STSS) (Streptococcus pyogenes) 1996 Case Definition. https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nndss/conditions/streptococcal-toxic-shock-syndrome/case-definition/1996/. Accessed 4 Apr 2018.
Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editors. Streptococcus pyogenes: basic biology to clinical manifestations. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2016. p. 741–58.
Google Scholar
Fox KL, Born MW, Cohen MA. Fulminant infection and toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus pyogenes. J Emerg Med. 2002;22(4):357–66.
Article
Google Scholar
Ali SZ, Srinivasan S, Peh WCG. MRI in necrotizing fasciitis of the extremities. Br J Radiol. 1033;2014(87):20130560.
Google Scholar
Carbonetti F, Cremona A, Carusi V, Guidi M, Iannicelli E, Di Girolamo M, et al. The role of contrast enhanced computed tomography in the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis and comparison with the laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis (LRINEC). Radiol Med (Torino). 2016;121(2):106–21.
Article
Google Scholar
Kehrl T. Point-of-care ultrasound diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis missed by computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. J Emerg Med. 2014;47(2):172–5.
Article
Google Scholar
Hussein QA, Anaya DA. Necrotizing soft tissue infections. Crit Care Clin. 2013;29(4):795–806.
Article
Google Scholar
Malghem J, Lecouvet FE, Omoumi P, Maldague BE, Vande Berg BC. Necrotizing fasciitis: contribution and limitations of diagnostic imaging. Joint Bone Spine Rev Rhum. 2013;80(2):146–54.
Article
Google Scholar
Commons RJ, Smeesters PR, Proft T, Fraser JD, Robins-Browne R, Curtis N. Streptococcal superantigens: categorization and clinical associations. Trends Mol Med. 2014;20(1):48–62.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Proft T, Fraser JD. Bacterial superantigens. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133(3):299–306.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Dick GF, Dick GH. Scarlet fever. Am J Public Health (N-Y). 1924;14(12):1022–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Trask JD, Blake FG. Observations on the presence of a toxic substance in the blood and urine of patients with scarlet fever. J Exp Med. 1924;40(3):381–95.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Spaulding AR, Salgado-Pabón W, Kohler PL, Horswill AR, Leung DYM, Schlievert PM. Staphylococcal and streptococcal superantigen exotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26(3):422–47.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Walker MJ, Barnett TC, McArthur JD, Cole JN, Gillen CM, Henningham A, et al. Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27(2):264–301.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Sundberg E, Jardetzky TS. Structural basis for HLA-DQ binding by the streptococcal superantigen SSA. Nat Struct Biol. 1999;6(2):123–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Ferry T, Thomas D, Perpoint T, Lina G, Monneret G, Mohammedi I, et al. Analysis of superantigenic toxin Vbeta T-cell signatures produced during cases of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome and septic shock. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008;14(6):546–54.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Llewelyn M, Cohen J. Superantigens: microbial agents that corrupt immunity. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002;2(3):156–62.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Herman A, Kappler JW, Marrack P, Pullen AM. Superantigens: mechanism of T-cell stimulation and role in immune responses. Annu Rev Immunol. 1991;9:745–72.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
McCormick JK, Yarwood JM, Schlievert PM. Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: an update. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2001;55:77–104.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Al-ajmi JA, Hill P, O’Boyle C, Garcia MLB, Malkawi M, George A, et al. Group A Streptococcus Toxic Shock Syndrome: an outbreak report and review of the literature. J Infect Public Health. 2012;5(6):388–93.
Article
Google Scholar
Lamagni TL, Darenberg J, Luca-Harari B, Siljander T, Efstratiou A, Henriques-Normark B, et al. Epidemiology of severe Streptococcus pyogenes disease in Europe. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(7):2359–67.
Article
Google Scholar
Brosnahan AJ, Schlievert PM. Gram positive bacterial superantigen outside-in signaling causes toxic shock syndrome. FEBS J. 2011;278(23):4649–67.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Kotb M, Norrby-Teglund A, McGeer A, El-Sherbini H, Dorak MT, Khurshid A, et al. An immunogenetic and molecular basis for differences in outcomes of invasive group A streptococcal infections. Nat Med. 2002;8(12):1398–404.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Llewelyn M. Human leukocyte antigen class II haplotypes that protect against or predispose to streptococcal toxic shock. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(Suppl 7):S445–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Bryant AE, Bayer CR, Aldape MJ, Stevens DL. The roles of injury and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the development and outcomes of severe group A streptococcal soft tissue infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2015;28(3):231–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Hamilton SM, Bayer CR, Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Effects of selective and nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on antibiotic efficacy of experimental group A streptococcal myonecrosis. J Infect Dis. 2014;209(9):1429–35.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Dubos F, Hue V, Grandbastien B, Catteau B, Martinot A. Bacterial skin infections in children hospitalized with varicella: a possible negative impact of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs? Acta Derm Venereol. 2008;88(1):26–30.
Article
Google Scholar
Stevens DL. Could nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) enhance the progression of bacterial infections to toxic shock syndrome? Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21(4):977–80.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Schummer W, Schummer C. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(8):1194.
Article
Google Scholar
Macris MH, Hartman N, Murray B, Klein RF, Roberts RB, Kaplan EL, et al. Studies of the continuing susceptibility of group A streptococcal strains to penicillin during eight decades. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(5):377–81.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Stevens DL, Bryant AE, Yan S. Invasive group A streptococcal infection: new concepts in antibiotic treatment. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 1994;4(4):297–301.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Stevens DL, Gibbons AE, Bergstrom R, Winn V. The Eagle effect revisited: efficacy of clindamycin, erythromycin, and penicillin in the treatment of streptococcal myositis. J Infect Dis. 1988;158(1):23–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Sriskandan S, McKee A, Hall L, Cohen J. Comparative effects of clindamycin and ampicillin on superantigenic activity of Streptococcus pyogenes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997;40(2):275–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Mascini EM, Jansze M, Schouls LM, Verhoef J, Van Dijk H. Penicillin and clindamycin differentially inhibit the production of pyrogenic exotoxins A and B by group A streptococci. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2001;18(4):395–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Coyle EA, Cha R, Rybak MJ. Influences of linezolid, penicillin, and clindamycin, alone and in combination, on streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin a release. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(5):1752–5.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Carapetis JR, Jacoby P, Carville K, Ang S-JJ, Curtis N, Andrews R. Effectiveness of clindamycin and intravenous immunoglobulin, and risk of disease in contacts, in invasive group a streptococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(3):358–65.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Norrby-Teglund A, Pauksens K, Holm SE, Norgren M. Relation between low capacity of human sera to inhibit streptococcal mitogens and serious manifestation of disease. J Infect Dis. 1994;170(3):585–91.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Basma H, Norrby-Teglund A, Guedez Y, McGeer A, Low DE, El-Ahmedy O, et al. Risk factors in the pathogenesis of invasive group A streptococcal infections: role of protective humoral immunity. Infect Immun. 1999;67(4):1871–7.
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Barry W, Hudgins L, Donta ST, Pesanti EL. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for toxic shock syndrome. JAMA. 1992;267(24):3315–6.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Lamothe F, D’Amico P, Ghosn P, Tremblay C, Braidy J, Patenaude JV. Clinical usefulness of intravenous human immunoglobulins in invasive group A Streptococcal infections: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21(6):1469–70.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Stevens DL. Rationale for the use of intravenous gamma globulin in the treatment of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(3):639–41.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Mouthon L, Kaveri SV, Spalter SH, Lacroix-Desmazes S, Lefranc C, Desai R, et al. Mechanisms of action of intravenous immune globulin in immune-mediated diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 1996;104(Suppl 1):3–9.
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Norrby-Teglund A, Kaul R, Low DE, McGeer A, Newton DW, Andersson J, et al. Plasma from patients with severe invasive group A streptococcal infections treated with normal polyspecific IgG inhibits streptococcal superantigen-induced T cell proliferation and cytokine production. J Immunol. 1996;156(8):3057–64.
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Kaul R, McGeer A, Norrby-Teglund A, Kotb M, Schwartz B, –Rourke K, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome—a comparative observational study. The Canadian Streptococcal Study Group. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am. 1999;28(4):800–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Darenberg J, Ihendyane N, Sjölin J, Aufwerber E, Haidl S, Follin P, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a European randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(3):333–40.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Madsen MB, Hjortrup PB, Hansen MB, Lange T, Norrby-Teglund A, Hyldegaard O, et al. Immunoglobulin G for patients with necrotising soft tissue infection (INSTINCT): a randomised, blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(11):1585–93.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Kadri SS, Swihart BJ, Bonne SL, Hohmann SF, Hennessy LV, Louras P, et al. Impact of intravenous immunoglobulin on survival in necrotizing fasciitis with vasopressor-dependent shock: a propensity score-matched analysis from 130 US hospitals. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(7):877–85.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJC, Gorbach SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(2):147–59.
Article
Google Scholar
Hoeper MM, Abou-Rebyeh F, Athman C, Schwarz A. Plasmapheresis in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(12):2399.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Tanz RR, Shulman ST. Chronic pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(2):175–6.
Article
Google Scholar
Morita JY, Kahn E, Thompson T, Laclaire L, Beall B, Gherardi G, et al. Impact of azithromycin on oropharyngeal carriage of group A Streptococcus and nasopharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(1):41–6.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Orrling A, Stjernquist-Desatnik A, Schalén C. Clindamycin in recurrent group A streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis—an alternative to tonsillectomy? Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1997;117(4):618–22.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Robinson KA, Rothrock G, Phan Q, Sayler B, Stefonek K, Van Beneden C, et al. Risk for severe group A Streptococcal disease among patients’ household contacts. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(4):443–7.
Article
Google Scholar
Pandey M, Sekuloski S, Batzloff MR. Novel strategies for controlling Streptococcus pyogenes infection and associated diseases: from potential peptide vaccines to antibody immunotherapy. Immunol Cell Biol. 2009;87(5):391–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Pandey M, Mortensen R, Calcutt A, Powell J, Batzloff MR, Dietrich J, et al. Combinatorial synthetic peptide vaccine strategy protects against hypervirulent CovR/S mutant Streptococci. J Immunol. 2016;196(8):3364–74.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Good MF, Batzloff MR, Pandey M. Strategies in the development of vaccines to prevent infections with group A streptococcus. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2013;9(11):2393–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Excler J-L, Kim JH. Accelerating the development of a group A Streptococcus vaccine: an urgent public health need. Clin Exp Vaccine Res. 2016;5(2):101–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Prevention of Invasive Group. A streptococcal disease among household contacts of case patients and among postpartum and postsurgical patients: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(8):950–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L, and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. 2007 Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/isolation2007.pdf.
Smith A, Lamagni TL, Oliver I, Efstratiou A, George RC, Stuart JM. Invasive group A streptococcal disease: should close contacts routinely receive antibiotic prophylaxis? Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(8):494–500.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar